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Aflatoxin

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Alpha_toxin_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Alpha toxin (disambiguation)">Alpha toxin</a>.</div>

Aflatoxins are various <a href="Toxicity" title="Toxicity">poisonous</a> <a href="Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogens</a> and <a href="Mutagen" title="Mutagen">mutagens</a> that are produced by certain <a href="Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">molds</a>, especially <a href="Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a> species such as <a href="Aspergillus_flavus" title="Aspergillus flavus">Aspergillus flavus</a> and <a href="Aspergillus_parasiticus" title="Aspergillus parasiticus">Aspergillus parasiticus</a>. According to the <a href="USDA" class="mw-redirect" title="USDA">USDA</a>, "They are probably the best known and most intensively researched <a href="Mycotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycotoxins">mycotoxins</a> in the world."<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> The fungi grow in soil, decaying vegetation and various <a href="Staple_food" title="Staple food">staple foodstuffs and commodities</a> such as hay, <a href="Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> (corn), <a href="Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a>, <a href="Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, <a href="Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="Millet" title="Millet">millet</a>, <a href="Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, <a href="Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a>, <a href="Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, <a href="Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">chili peppers</a>, <a href="Cottonseed" title="Cottonseed">cottonseed</a>, <a href="Tree_nuts" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree nuts">tree nuts</a>, <a href="Sesame_seeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesame seeds">sesame seeds</a>, <a href="Sunflower_seeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflower seeds">sunflower seeds</a>, and various cereal grains and oil seeds. In short, the relevant fungi grow on almost any crop or food. When such contaminated food is processed or consumed, the aflatoxins enter the general food supply. They have been found in both pet and human foods, as well as in feedstocks for agricultural animals. Animals fed contaminated food can pass aflatoxin transformation products into milk, milk products, and meat.<a href="#cite_note-Fratamicopm-2">[2]</a> For example, contaminated poultry feed is the suspected source of aflatoxin-contaminated chicken meat and eggs in Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-Iqbal-3">[3]</a>

Children are particularly vulnerable to aflatoxin exposure, which is linked to <a href="Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">immune suppression</a>, <a href="Stunted_growth" title="Stunted growth">stunted growth</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> delayed development,<a href="#cite_note-hamed2005-5">[5]</a> aflatoxicosis,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and <a href="Liver_cancer" title="Liver cancer">liver cancer</a>. Some studies have reported an association between childhood stunting and aflatoxin exposure, although this link has not been consistently detected in all studies.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Furthermore, a causal relationship between childhood stunting and aflatoxin exposure has yet to be conclusively shown by epidemiological studies, though such investigations are underway.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Adults have a higher tolerance to exposure, but are also at risk. No animal species is known to be immune. Aflatoxins are among the most <a href="Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogenic</a> substances known.<a href="#cite_note-hudler-14">[14]</a> After entering the body, aflatoxins may be metabolized by the liver to a reactive <a href="Epoxide" title="Epoxide">epoxide</a> intermediate or hydroxylated to become the less harmful <a href="Aflatoxin_M1" title="Aflatoxin M1">aflatoxin M1</a>.

Aflatoxin poisoning most commonly results from ingestion, but the most toxic aflatoxin compound, B1, can permeate through the skin.<a href="#cite_note-boonen-15">[15]</a>

The <a href="United_States_Food_and_Drug_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Food and Drug Administration">United States Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) action levels for aflatoxin present in food or <a href="Mycotoxins_in_animal_feed" title="Mycotoxins in animal feed">feed</a> is 20 to 300 <a href="Parts-per_notation#ppb" title="Parts-per notation">ppb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fda2000-16">[16]</a> The FDA has had occasion to declare both human and pet food recalls as a precautionary measure to prevent exposure.

The term "aflatoxin" is derived from the name of the species Aspergillus flavus, in which some of the compounds were first discovered. A new disease was identified with unknown characteristics in England during the 1950s and 1960s, which increased turkey mortality. Later, aflatoxin was recognized in 1960 in England as a causative agent of the mysterious <a href="Turkey_X_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkey X disease">Turkey X disease</a> that causes excessive mortality in turkey poults.<a href="#cite_note-wannop-17">[17]</a> Aflatoxins form one of the major groupings of <a href="Mycotoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycotoxins">mycotoxins</a>, and apart from Aspergillus flavus various members of the group of compounds occur in species such as Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus pseudocaelatus, Aspergillus pseudonomius, and Aspergillus nomius.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_types_and_their_metabolites">Major types and their metabolites</h2></div>

<a href="Aflatoxin_B1" title="Aflatoxin B1">Aflatoxin B1</a> is considered the most toxic and is produced by both <a href="Aspergillus_flavus" title="Aspergillus flavus">Aspergillus flavus</a> and <a href="Aspergillus_parasiticus" title="Aspergillus parasiticus">Aspergillus parasiticus</a>. <a href="Aflatoxin_M1" title="Aflatoxin M1">Aflatoxin M1</a> is present in the fermentation broth of Aspergillus parasiticus, but it and aflatoxin M2 are also produced when an infected liver metabolizes aflatoxin B1 and B2.

<ul><li>Aflatoxin B1 and B2 (AFB), produced by A. flavus and A. parasiticus</li>

<li>Aflatoxin G1 and G2 (AFG), produced by some Group II A. flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></li>

<li>Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), metabolite of aflatoxin B1 in humans and animals (exposure in <a href="Nanogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanogram">ng</a> levels may come from a mother's milk)</li>

<li>Aflatoxin M2, metabolite of aflatoxin B2 in milk of cattle fed on contaminated foods<a href="#cite_note-fermetek-20">[20]</a></li>

<li>Aflatoxicol (AFL): metabolite produced by breaking down the lactone ring</li>

<li>Aflatoxin Q1 (AFQ1), major metabolite of AFB1 in <a href="In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a> liver preparations of other higher vertebrates<a href="#cite_note-smith-21">[21]</a></li></ul>

AFM, AFQ, and AFL retain the possibility of becoming an epoxide. Nevertheless, they appear much less capable of causing <a href="Mutagenesis" title="Mutagenesis">mutagenesis</a> than the unmetabolized ABM.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contamination_conditions">Contamination conditions</h2></div>

Aflatoxins are produced by both <a href="Aspergillus_flavus" title="Aspergillus flavus">Aspergillus flavus</a> and <a href="Aspergillus_parasiticus" title="Aspergillus parasiticus">Aspergillus parasiticus</a>, which are common forms of 'weedy' molds widespread in nature. The presence of those molds does not always indicate that harmful levels of aflatoxin are present, but it does indicate a significant risk. The molds can colonize and contaminate food before harvest or during storage, especially following prolonged exposure to a high-humidity environment or to stressful conditions such as drought. Aflatoxin contamination is increasing in crops such as <a href="Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> as a result of <a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, creating better conditions for these molds.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>

The native habitat of Aspergillus is in soil, decaying vegetation, <a href="Hay" title="Hay">hay</a>, and grains undergoing microbiological deterioration, but it invades all types of organic substrates whenever conditions are favorable for its growth. Favorable conditions for production of aflatoxins include high <a href="Moisture_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Moisture content">moisture content</a> (at least 7%) and temperatures from 55 to 104 °F (13 to 40 °C) [optimum 27 to 30 °C (81 to 86 °F)].<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Aflatoxins have been isolated from all major cereal crops, and sources as diverse as peanut butter and cannabis. The staple commodities regularly contaminated with aflatoxins include cassava, chilies, corn, cottonseed, millet, peanuts, rice, sorghum, sunflower seeds, tree nuts, wheat, and a variety of spices intended for human or animal consumption. Aflatoxin transformation products are sometimes found in eggs, milk products, and meat when animals are fed contaminated grains.<a href="#cite_note-Fratamicopm-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>

A study conducted in <a href="Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> and <a href="Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a> found that the predominant practices for drying and storage of maize were inadequate in minimizing exposure to aflatoxins.<a href="#cite_note-aflacontrol-28">[28]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2></div>

A primary means of limiting risk from aflatoxins in the food supply is <a href="Food_hygiene" class="mw-redirect" title="Food hygiene">food hygiene</a> in the commercial commodity supply chain, such as rejecting moldy grain for use in <a href="Food_processing" title="Food processing">food processing</a> plants and testing of batches of ingredients for aflatoxin levels before adding them to the mix. Regulatory agencies such as the FDA set limits on acceptable levels. <a href="Grain_drying" title="Grain drying">Grain drying</a> itself, which is <a href="Grain_drying#History" title="Grain drying">necessary for viable combine harvesting in many regions</a>, lays the fundamentals for this effort by preventing stored grain from being too damp in the first place.

There is very limited evidence to show that agricultural and nutritional education can reduce exposure to aflatoxin in low to middle-income countries.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathology">Pathology</h2></div>

No animal species is known to be immune to the <a href="Acute_toxicity" title="Acute toxicity">acute toxic</a> effects of aflatoxins. Adult humans have a high tolerance for aflatoxin exposure and rarely succumb to acute aflatoxicosis,<a href="#cite_note-williams-30">[30]</a> but children are particularly affected, and their exposure can lead to stunted growth and delayed development, in addition to all the symptoms mentioned below.<a href="#cite_note-hamed2005-5">[5]</a>

High-level aflatoxin exposure produces an acute <a href="Liver" title="Liver">hepatic</a> <a href="Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a> (acute aflatoxicosis), resulting later in <a href="Cirrhosis" title="Cirrhosis">cirrhosis</a> or <a href="Liver_cancer" title="Liver cancer">carcinoma of the liver</a>. Acute liver failure is made manifest by <a href="Hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhage">bleeding</a>, <a href="Edema" title="Edema">edema</a>, alteration in digestion, changes to the absorption and/or metabolism of nutrients, and mental changes and/or <a href="Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-williams-30">[30]</a>

Chronic, <a href="Asymptomatic" title="Asymptomatic">subclinical</a> exposure does not lead to symptoms as dramatic as acute aflatoxicosis. Chronic exposure increases the risk of developing liver and gallbladder cancer,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> as aflatoxin metabolites may <a href="Intercalation_(biochemistry)" title="Intercalation (biochemistry)">intercalate</a> into DNA and <a href="Alkylation" title="Alkylation">alkylate</a> the bases through its epoxide <a href="Moiety_(chemistry)" title="Moiety (chemistry)">moiety</a>. This is thought to cause mutations in the <a href="P53" title="P53">p53</a> gene, an important gene in preventing cell cycle progression when there are DNA mutations, or signaling <a href="Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a> (programmed cell death). These mutations seem to affect some base pair locations more than others; for example, the third base of codon 249 of the p53 gene appears to be more susceptible to aflatoxin-mediated mutations than nearby bases.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> As with other DNA-alkylating agents, Aflatoxin B1 can cause immune suppression, and exposure to it is associated with an increased <a href="Viral_load" title="Viral load">viral load</a> in <a href="HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> positive individuals.<a href="#cite_note-jolly-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-jolly2-34">[34]</a>

The expression of aflatoxin-related diseases is influenced by factors such as species, age, nutrition, sex, and the possibility of concurrent exposure to other toxins. The main target organ in mammals is the liver, so aflatoxicosis is primarily a hepatic disease. Conditions increasing the likelihood of aflatoxicosis in humans include limited availability of food, environmental conditions that favour mould growth on foodstuffs, and lack of regulatory systems for aflatoxin monitoring and control.<a href="#cite_note-MachidaMGomiK-35">[35]</a>

A regular diet including <a href="Apiaceae" title="Apiaceae">apiaceous vegetables</a>, such as <a href="Carrot" title="Carrot">carrots</a>, <a href="Parsnip" title="Parsnip">parsnips</a>, <a href="Celery" title="Celery">celery</a>, and <a href="Parsley" title="Parsley">parsley</a> may reduce the <a href="Carcinogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcinogenic">carcinogenic</a> effects of aflatoxin.<a href="#cite_note-petersen-36">[36]</a>

There is no specific antidote for aflatoxicosis. Symptomatic and supportive care tailored to the severity of the liver disease may include intravenous fluids with dextrose, active vitamin K, B vitamins, and a restricted, but high-quality protein diet with adequate carbohydrate content.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_other_animals">In other animals</h3></div>

In dogs, aflatoxin has the potential to lead to liver disease. Low levels of aflatoxin exposure require continuous consumption for several weeks to months for signs of liver dysfunction to appear.<a href="#cite_note-bingham-37">[37]</a> Some articles have suggested the toxic level in dog food is 100–300 ppb and requires continuous exposure or consumption for a few weeks to months to develop aflatoxicosis.<a href="#cite_note-bastianello-38">[38]</a> No information is available to suggest that recovered dogs will later succumb to an aflatoxin-induced disease.

Turkeys are extremely susceptible to aflatoxicosis. Recent studies have revealed that this is due to the efficient <a href="Cytochrome_P450" title="Cytochrome P450">cytochrome P450</a> mediated metabolism of aflatoxin B1 in the liver of turkeys and deficient <a href="Glutathione-S-transferase" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutathione-S-transferase">glutathione-S-transferase</a> mediated detoxification.<a href="#cite_note-rawal1-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-rawal2-40">[40]</a>

Some studies on pregnant hamsters showed a significant relationship between exposure to aflatoxin B1 (4 mg/kg, single dose) and the appearance of <a href="Teratology" title="Teratology">developmental anomalies</a> in their offspring.<a href="#cite_note-goldblatt-41">[41]</a>

In 2005, Diamond Pet Foods discovered aflatoxin in a product manufactured at their facility in <a href="Gaston%2C_South_Carolina" title="Gaston, South Carolina">Gaston, South Carolina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> In 23 states, Diamond voluntarily recalled 19 products formulated with corn and manufactured in the Gaston facility. Testing of more than 2,700 finished product samples conducted by laboratories confirmed that only two date codes of two adult dog formulas had the potential to be toxic.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

In December 2020 and January 2021, Midwestern Pet Foods recalled dog food that contained fatal levels of aflatoxin.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> As many as 70 dogs had died from aflatoxin poisoning by January 12, 2021.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Detection_in_humans">Detection in humans</h2></div>

Two principal techniques have been used most often to detect levels of aflatoxin in humans.

The first method is measuring the AFB1-<a href="Guanine" title="Guanine">guanine</a> <a href="Adduct" title="Adduct">adduct</a> in the urine of subjects. The presence of this breakdown product indicates exposure to aflatoxin B1 during the past 24 hours. This technique measures only recent exposure, however. Due to the <a href="Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of this metabolite, the level of AFB1-guanine measured may vary from day to day, based on diet, and it is not ideal for assessing long-term exposure.

Another technique that has been used is a measurement of the AFB1-<a href="Serum_albumin" title="Serum albumin">albumin</a> adduct level in the blood serum. This approach provides a more integrated measure of exposure over several weeks or months.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_outbreaks">List of outbreaks</h2></div>

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International sources of commercial <a href="Peanut_butter" title="Peanut butter">peanut butter</a>, <a href="Cooking_oils" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooking oils">cooking oils</a> (e.g. <a href="Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive</a>, <a href="Peanut_oil" title="Peanut oil">peanut</a> and <a href="Sesame_oil" title="Sesame oil">sesame oil</a>), and <a href="Cosmetics" title="Cosmetics">cosmetics</a> have been identified as contaminated with aflatoxin.<a href="#cite_note-bao-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-peanut-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-analytical-49">[49]</a> In some instances, <a href="Liquid_chromatography%E2%80%93mass_spectrometry" title="Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry">liquid chromatography</a>–<a href="Tandem_mass_spectrometry" title="Tandem mass spectrometry">tandem mass spectrometry</a> (LC–MS/MS), and other analytical methods, revealed a range from 48% to 80% of selected product samples as containing detectable quantities of aflatoxin. In many of these contaminated food products, the aflatoxin exceeded the safe limits of the U.S. <a href="Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) or other regulatory agencies.<a href="#cite_note-peanut-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-analytical-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-leong-50">[50]</a>

<ul><li>1960: Outbreak of Turkey 'X' disease in England and aflatoxin discovery<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></li>

<li>1961: Identified Aspergillus flavus associated with toxicity of groundnuts</li>

<li>1962: Studies conducted on the physicochemical properties of aflatoxins, aflatoxin B and G identified in TLC analysis, and isolation and synthesis of crystalline aflatoxins.</li>

<li>1963: Aflatoxin B2, G1, and G2 were identified and chemically characterized as difurocoumarin derivatives</li>

<li>1965: FDA approved the first regulation on aflatoxins 30 μg/kg</li>

<li>1966: Milk toxins were designated as AFM1 and AFM2, and AFM1 was detected in milk, urine, kidney, and liver</li>

<li>1973 Poland: 10 died following the opening of the <a href="Tomb_of_Casimir_IV_Jagiellon" title="Tomb of Casimir IV Jagiellon">tomb of Casimir IV Jagiellon</a>, which contained aflatoxin-producing molds.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></li>

<li>2004 Kenya: acute outbreak of aflatoxicosis resulting from ingestion of contaminated maize, 125 confirmed deaths.<a href="#cite_note-Acute_Aflatoxicosis-53">[53]</a></li>

<li>February–March 2013: Romania, Serbia, Croatia imported into western Europe – <a href="2013_aflatoxin_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="2013 aflatoxin contamination">2013 aflatoxin contamination</a>.</li>

<li>February 2013: Iowa contamination.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></li>

<li>2014 (ongoing): <a href="Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> and <a href="Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, neonatal exposures, found in <a href="Umbilical_cord" title="Umbilical cord">umbilical cord</a> blood.<a href="#cite_note-scidev-55">[55]</a></li>

<li>2019 Kenya: five brands of maize flour recalled due to contamination.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></li>

<li>2021 US: Contamination of pet food manufactured by Midwestern Pet Food, causing the deaths of at least 70 dogs.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></li>

<li>2021 Sri Lanka: contaminated coconut oil released for public consumption by the local government.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></li>

<li>2023 Kenya: lactating women exposure to dietary aflatoxin among mothers of children with children 0-6 months.</li>

<li>2024 South Africa: The National Consumer Commission recalled various peanut butter brands due to contamination<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Aflatoxin_total_synthesis" title="Aflatoxin total synthesis">Aflatoxin total synthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="2013_aflatoxin_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="2013 aflatoxin contamination">2013 aflatoxin contamination</a></li>

<li><a href="Mycotoxins_in_animal_feed" title="Mycotoxins in animal feed">Mycotoxins in animal feed</a></li>

<li><a href="Nixtamalization" title="Nixtamalization">Nixtamalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Sterigmatocystin" title="Sterigmatocystin">Sterigmatocystin</a>, a related toxin</li>

<li>Other ways in which aspergillus can cause disease in mammals:

<ul><li><a href="Aspergillosis" title="Aspergillosis">Aspergillosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Primary_cutaneous_aspergillosis" title="Primary cutaneous aspergillosis">Primary cutaneous aspergillosis</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-55659116">"US pet food recalled after 70 dogs die and others fall sick"</a>. BBC News. 2021-01-14. Retrieved 2021-01-14.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.themorning.lk/customs-to-probe-coconut-oil-allegation">"Coconut oil stocks containing aflatoxins in market"</a>. themorning.lk. 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2021-03-26.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sanews.gov.za/south-africa/various-peanut-butter-brands-recalled">"Various peanut butter brands recalled | SAnews"</a>. www.sanews.gov.za. 2024-02-11. Retrieved 2025-01-01.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aflatoxin" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:aflatoxin">aflatoxin</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081204112027/http://www.aspergillus.org.uk/secure/metabolites/list_by_secmet.php?toxin=y">Detailed listing and information on all Aspergillus mycotoxins</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icrisat.org/aflatoxin/">Aflatoxin</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140228185900/http://www.icrisat.org/aflatoxin/">Archived</a> 2014-02-28 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, ICRISAT</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070307151941/http://www.aspergillusflavus.org/">Aspergillusflavus.org</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/substances/aflatoxins">Aflatoxins – Cancer-Causing Substance</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/molecule-of-the-week/archive/a/aflatoxin-b1.html">Aflatoxin B1</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="*_Toxins_**_cardiotoxin_**_cytotoxin_**_enterotoxin_**_hemotoxin_**_hepatotoxin_**_neurotoxin_**_phototoxin403" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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</style><div id="*_Toxins_**_cardiotoxin_**_cytotoxin_**_enterotoxin_**_hemotoxin_**_hepatotoxin_**_neurotoxin_**_phototoxin403" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">

<ul><li><a href="Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxins</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cardiotoxicity" title="Cardiotoxicity">cardiotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Cytotoxicity" title="Cytotoxicity">cytotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterotoxin" title="Enterotoxin">enterotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Hemotoxin" title="Hemotoxin">hemotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Hepatotoxin" title="Hepatotoxin">hepatotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">neurotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Phototoxin" title="Phototoxin">phototoxin</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Microbial_toxin" title="Microbial toxin">Bacterial toxins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">Exotoxin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gram_positive119" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">Gram positive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Bacilli" title="Bacilli">Bacilli</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Clostridium" title="Clostridium">Clostridium</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Clostridium_tetani" title="Clostridium tetani">tetani</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tetanospasmin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetanospasmin">Tetanospasmin</a></li>

<li><a href="Tetanolysin" title="Tetanolysin">Tetanolysin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Clostridium_perfringens" title="Clostridium perfringens">perfringens</a>

<ul><li><a href="Clostridium_perfringens_alpha_toxin" title="Clostridium perfringens alpha toxin">Alpha toxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Clostridium_enterotoxin" title="Clostridium enterotoxin">Enterotoxin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Clostridium_difficile_(bacteria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clostridium difficile (bacteria)">difficile</a>

<li><a href="Clostridium_botulinum" title="Clostridium botulinum">botulinum</a>

<ul><li><a href="Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">Botox</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anthrax_toxin" title="Anthrax toxin">Anthrax toxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Listeriolysin_O" title="Listeriolysin O">Listeriolysin O</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Coccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccus">Cocci</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Streptolysin" title="Streptolysin">Streptolysin</a></li>

<li><a href="Leukocidin" title="Leukocidin">Leukocidin</a>

<ul><li><a href="Panton%E2%80%93Valentine_leukocidin" title="Panton–Valentine leukocidin">Panton–Valentine leukocidin</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Staphylococcus" title="Staphylococcus">Staphylococcus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Staphylococcus_aureus_alpha_toxin" title="Staphylococcus aureus alpha toxin">Staphylococcus aureus alpha</a>/<a href="Staphylococcus_aureus_beta_toxin" title="Staphylococcus aureus beta toxin">beta</a>/<a href="Staphylococcus_aureus_delta_toxin" title="Staphylococcus aureus delta toxin">delta</a></li>

<li><a href="Exfoliatin" title="Exfoliatin">Exfoliatin</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxic_shock_syndrome_toxin-1" title="Toxic shock syndrome toxin-1">Toxic shock syndrome toxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterotoxin_type_B" title="Enterotoxin type B">Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cord_factor" title="Cord factor">Cord factor</a></li>

<li><a href="Diphtheria_toxin" title="Diphtheria toxin">Diphtheria toxin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">Gram negative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Shiga_toxin" title="Shiga toxin">Shiga toxin</a>/Verotoxin</li>

<li><a href="Heat-stable_enterotoxin" title="Heat-stable enterotoxin">E. coli heat-stable enterotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Cholera_toxin" title="Cholera toxin">Cholera toxin</a>/<a href="Heat-labile_enterotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat-labile enterotoxin">Heat-labile enterotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Pertussis_toxin" title="Pertussis toxin">Pertussis toxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudomonas_exotoxin" title="Pseudomonas exotoxin">Pseudomonas exotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Extracellular_adenylate_cyclase" title="Extracellular adenylate cyclase">Extracellular adenylate cyclase</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Exotoxin#Types" title="Exotoxin">Mechanisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Superantigen" title="Superantigen">Superantigen</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Pore-forming_toxin" title="Pore-forming toxin">Pore-forming toxin</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="AB_toxin" title="AB toxin">AB toxin</a>/<a href="AB5_toxin" title="AB5 toxin">AB5</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Endotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Endotoxin">Endotoxin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lipopolysaccharide" title="Lipopolysaccharide">Lipopolysaccharide</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lipid_A" title="Lipid A">Lipid A</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Delta_endotoxins" title="Delta endotoxins">Bacillus thuringiensis delta endotoxin</a>

<li>Other B. thuringiensis toxins

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">Virulence factor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Clumping_factor_A" title="Clumping factor A">Clumping factor A</a></li>

<li><a href="Fibronectin_binding_protein_A" title="Fibronectin binding protein A">Fibronectin binding protein A</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">Mycotoxins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Amatoxin" title="Amatoxin">Amatoxin</a> (<a href="%CE%91-Amanitin" title="Α-Amanitin">alpha-amanitin</a>, <a href="%CE%92-Amanitin" title="Β-Amanitin">beta-amanitin</a>, <a href="%CE%93-Amanitin" title="Γ-Amanitin">gamma-amanitin</a>, <a href="%CE%95-Amanitin" title="Ε-Amanitin">epsilon-amanitin</a>, <a href="Amanullin" title="Amanullin">Amanullin</a>, <a href="Amanullinic_acid" title="Amanullinic acid">Amanullinic acid</a>, <a href="Amaninamide" title="Amaninamide">Amaninamide</a>, <a href="Amanin" title="Amanin">Amanin</a>, <a href="Proamanullin" title="Proamanullin">Proamanullin</a>)</li>

<li><a href="3-Nitropropionic_acid" title="3-Nitropropionic acid">beta-Nitropropionic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Citrinin" title="Citrinin">Citrinin</a></li>

<li><a href="Cytochalasin" title="Cytochalasin">Cytochalasin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ergotamine" title="Ergotamine">Ergotamine</a></li>

<li><a href="Fumonisin" title="Fumonisin">Fumonisin</a> (<a href="Fumonisin_B1" title="Fumonisin B1">Fumonisin B1</a>, <a href="Fumonisin_B2" title="Fumonisin B2">Fumonisin B2</a>, Fumonisin B3, <a href="Fumonisin_B4" title="Fumonisin B4">Fumonisin B4</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Gliotoxin" title="Gliotoxin">Gliotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Lolitrem_B" title="Lolitrem B">Lolitrem B</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscarine" title="Muscarine">Muscarine</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscimol" title="Muscimol">Muscimol</a></li>

<li><a href="Orellanine" title="Orellanine">Orellanine</a></li>

<li><a href="Ochratoxin" title="Ochratoxin">Ochratoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Patulin" title="Patulin">Patulin</a></li>

<li><a href="Phallotoxin" title="Phallotoxin">Phallotoxin</a> (<a href="Phalloidin" title="Phalloidin">Phalloidin</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Satratoxin-H" title="Satratoxin-H">Satratoxin-H</a></li>

<li><a href="Sterigmatocystin" title="Sterigmatocystin">Sterigmatocystin</a></li>

<li><a href="T-2_mycotoxin" title="T-2 mycotoxin">T-2 mycotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Trichothecene" title="Trichothecene">Trichothecene</a></li>

<li><a href="Vomitoxin" title="Vomitoxin">Vomitoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Zeranol" title="Zeranol">Zeranol</a></li>

<li><a href="Zearalenone" title="Zearalenone">Zearalenone</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> toxins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amygdalin" title="Amygdalin">Amygdalin</a></li>

<li><a href="Anisatin" title="Anisatin">Anisatin</a></li>

<li><a href="Antiarin" title="Antiarin">Antiarin</a></li>

<li><a href="Brucine" title="Brucine">Brucine</a></li>

<li><a href="Chaconine" title="Chaconine">Chaconine</a></li>

<li><a href="Cicutoxin" title="Cicutoxin">Cicutoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Coniine" title="Coniine">Coniine</a></li>

<li><a href="Daphnin" title="Daphnin">Daphnin</a></li>

<li><a href="Delphinine" title="Delphinine">Delphinine</a></li>

<li><a href="Divicine" title="Divicine">Divicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Djenkolic_acid" title="Djenkolic acid">Djenkolic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Falcarinol" title="Falcarinol">Falcarinol</a></li>

<li><a href="Gossypol" title="Gossypol">Gossypol</a></li>

<li><a href="Helenalin" title="Helenalin">Helenalin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ledol" title="Ledol">Ledol</a></li>

<li><a href="Linamarin" title="Linamarin">Linamarin</a></li>

<li><a href="Lotaustralin" title="Lotaustralin">Lotaustralin</a></li>

<li><a href="Mimosine" title="Mimosine">Mimosine</a></li>

<li><a href="Oenanthotoxin" title="Oenanthotoxin">Oenanthotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Oleandrin" title="Oleandrin">Oleandrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Persin" title="Persin">Persin</a></li>

<li><a href="Protoanemonin" title="Protoanemonin">Protoanemonin</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudaconitine" title="Pseudaconitine">Pseudaconitine</a></li>

<li><a href="Retronecine" title="Retronecine">Retronecine</a></li>

<li><a href="Resiniferatoxin" title="Resiniferatoxin">Resiniferatoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyoscine_hydrobromide" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyoscine hydrobromide">Scopolamine</a></li>

<li><a href="Solamargine" title="Solamargine">Solamargine</a></li>

<li><a href="Solanidine" title="Solanidine">Solanidine</a></li>

<li><a href="Solanine" title="Solanine">Solanine</a></li>

<li><a href="Solasodamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Solasodamine">Solasodamine</a></li>

<li><a href="Solasodine" title="Solasodine">Solasodine</a></li>

<li><a href="Solasonine" title="Solasonine">Solasonine</a></li>

<li><a href="Solauricidine" class="mw-redirect" title="Solauricidine">Solauricidine</a></li>

<li><a href="Solauricine" class="mw-redirect" title="Solauricine">Solauricine</a></li>

<li><a href="Strychnine" title="Strychnine">Strychnine</a></li>

<li><a href="Swainsonine" title="Swainsonine">Swainsonine</a></li>

<li><a href="Tagetitoxin" title="Tagetitoxin">Tagetitoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Tinyatoxin" title="Tinyatoxin">Tinyatoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Tomatine" title="Tomatine">Tomatine</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxalbumin" title="Toxalbumin">Toxalbumin</a>

<ul><li><a href="Abrin" title="Abrin">Abrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Ricin" title="Ricin">Ricin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tutin_(toxin)" title="Tutin (toxin)">Tutin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">Invertebrate</a> toxins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Scorpion" title="Scorpion">Scorpion</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Androctonus_australis_hector_insect_toxin" title="Androctonus australis hector insect toxin">Androctonus australis hector insect toxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Charybdotoxin" title="Charybdotoxin">Charybdotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Maurotoxin" title="Maurotoxin">Maurotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Agitoxin" title="Agitoxin">Agitoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Margatoxin" title="Margatoxin">Margatoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Slotoxin" title="Slotoxin">Slotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Scyllatoxin" title="Scyllatoxin">Scyllatoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Hefutoxin" title="Hefutoxin">Hefutoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="HgeTx1" title="HgeTx1">HgeTx1</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaliotoxin" title="Kaliotoxin">Kaliotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Birtoxin" title="Birtoxin">Birtoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Bestoxin" title="Bestoxin">Bestoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="BmKAEP" title="BmKAEP">BmKAEP</a></li>

<li><a href="Phaiodotoxin" title="Phaiodotoxin">Phaiodotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Imperatoxin" title="Imperatoxin">Imperatoxin</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Spider" title="Spider">Spider</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Latrotoxin" title="Latrotoxin">Latrotoxin</a>

<ul><li><a href="Alpha-Latrotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Latrotoxin">Alpha-latrotoxin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cupiennin" title="Cupiennin">Cupiennins</a></li>

<li><a href="Stromatoxin" title="Stromatoxin">Stromatoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Vanillotoxin" title="Vanillotoxin">Vanillotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Huwentoxin" title="Huwentoxin">Huwentoxin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conotoxin" title="Conotoxin">Conotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Eledoisin" title="Eledoisin">Eledoisin</a></li>

<li><a href="Onchidal" title="Onchidal">Onchidal</a></li>

<li><a href="Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">Saxitoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">Tetrodotoxin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrate</a> toxins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Fish" title="Fish">Fish</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ciguatoxin" title="Ciguatoxin">Ciguatoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">Tetrodotoxin</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Amphibian" title="Amphibian">Amphibian</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allopumiliotoxin_267A" title="Allopumiliotoxin 267A">(+)-Allopumiliotoxin 267A</a></li>

<li><a href="Batrachotoxin" title="Batrachotoxin">Batrachotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Bufotoxin" title="Bufotoxin">Bufotoxins</a>

<ul><li><a href="Arenobufagin" title="Arenobufagin">Arenobufagin</a></li>

<li><a href="Bufotalin" title="Bufotalin">Bufotalin</a></li>

<li><a href="Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">Bufotenin</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinobufagin" title="Cinobufagin">Cinobufagin</a></li>

<li><a href="Marinobufagenin" title="Marinobufagenin">Marinobufagin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Epibatidine" title="Epibatidine">Epibatidine</a></li>

<li><a href="Histrionicotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Histrionicotoxin">Histrionicotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Pumiliotoxin_251D" title="Pumiliotoxin 251D">Pumiliotoxin 251D</a></li>

<li><a href="Samandarin" title="Samandarin">Samandarin</a></li>

<li><a href="Samandaridine" title="Samandaridine">Samandaridine</a></li>

<li><a href="Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">Tarichatoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Zetekitoxin_AB" title="Zetekitoxin AB">Zetekitoxin AB</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Reptile" title="Reptile">Reptile</a>/ <a href="Snake_venom" title="Snake venom">Snake venom</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bungarotoxin" title="Bungarotoxin">Bungarotoxin</a>

<ul><li><a href="%CE%91-Bungarotoxin" title="Α-Bungarotoxin">α-Bungarotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="%CE%92-Bungarotoxin" title="Β-Bungarotoxin">β-Bungarotoxin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Calciseptine" title="Calciseptine">Calciseptine</a></li>

<li><a href="Taicatoxin" title="Taicatoxin">Taicatoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Calcicludine" title="Calcicludine">Calcicludine</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiotoxin_III" title="Cardiotoxin III">Cardiotoxin III</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>note: some toxins are produced by lower species and pass through intermediate species</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Consumer_food_safety1300" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Consumer_food_safety1300" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Food_safety" title="Food safety">Consumer food safety</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Adulterant" title="Adulterant">Adulterants</a>, <a href="Food_contaminant" title="Food contaminant">food contaminants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Aldicarb" title="Aldicarb">Aldicarb</a></li>

<li><a href="Antibiotic_use_in_livestock" title="Antibiotic use in livestock">Antibiotic use in livestock</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyanide" title="Cyanide">Cyanide</a></li>

<li><a href="Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">Formaldehyde</a></li>

<li><a href="HGH_controversies" title="HGH controversies">HGH controversies</a></li>

<li><a href="Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Melamine" title="Melamine">Melamine</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercury_in_fish" title="Mercury in fish">Mercury in fish</a></li>

<li><a href="Sudan_I" title="Sudan I">Sudan I</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Food_additive" title="Food additive">Food additives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Flavoring" title="Flavoring">Flavorings</a></li>

<li><a href="Monosodium_glutamate" title="Monosodium glutamate">Monosodium glutamate (MSG)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a>

<ul><li><a href="High-fructose_corn_syrup" title="High-fructose corn syrup">High-fructose corn syrup</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">Vegetable oil</a>

<ul><li><a href="Seed_oil_misinformation" title="Seed oil misinformation">controversy</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Intestinal_parasite_infection" title="Intestinal parasite infection">Intestinal parasites</a>, <a href="Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasitic disease</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amoebiasis" title="Amoebiasis">Amoebiasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Anisakiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisakiasis">Anisakiasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">Cryptosporidiosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyclosporiasis" title="Cyclosporiasis">Cyclosporiasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Diphyllobothriasis" title="Diphyllobothriasis">Diphyllobothriasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Pinworm_infection" title="Pinworm infection">Enterobiasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Fasciolopsiasis" title="Fasciolopsiasis">Fasciolopsiasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Fasciolosis" title="Fasciolosis">Fasciolosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Giardiasis" title="Giardiasis">Giardiasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Gnathostomiasis" title="Gnathostomiasis">Gnathostomiasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Paragonimiasis" title="Paragonimiasis">Paragonimiasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxocariasis" title="Toxocariasis">Toxocariasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">Toxoplasmosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Trichinosis" title="Trichinosis">Trichinosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Trichuriasis" title="Trichuriasis">Trichuriasis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Botulism" title="Botulism">Botulism</a></li>

<li><a href="Campylobacter_jejuni" title="Campylobacter jejuni">Campylobacter jejuni</a></li>

<li><a href="Clostridium_perfringens" title="Clostridium perfringens">Clostridium perfringens</a></li>

<li><a href="Cronobacter" title="Cronobacter">Cronobacter</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterovirus" title="Enterovirus">Enterovirus</a></li>

<li><a href="Escherichia_coli_O104%3AH4" title="Escherichia coli O104:H4">Escherichia coli O104:H4</a></li>

<li><a href="Escherichia_coli_O157%3AH7" title="Escherichia coli O157:H7">Escherichia coli O157:H7</a></li>

<li><a href="Hepatitis_A" title="Hepatitis A">Hepatitis A</a></li>

<li><a href="Hepatitis_E" title="Hepatitis E">Hepatitis E</a></li>

<li><a href="Listeria" title="Listeria">Listeria</a></li>

<li><a href="Norovirus" title="Norovirus">Norovirus</a></li>

<li><a href="Rotavirus" title="Rotavirus">Rotavirus</a></li>

<li><a href="Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></li>

<li><a href="Shigatoxigenic_and_verotoxigenic_Escherichia_coli" title="Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic Escherichia coli">Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic E. coli</a></li>

<li><a href="Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">Vibrio cholerae</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chlorpyrifos" title="Chlorpyrifos">Chlorpyrifos</a></li>

<li><a href="Lindane" title="Lindane">Lindane</a></li>

<li><a href="Malathion" title="Malathion">Malathion</a></li>

<li><a href="Methamidophos" title="Methamidophos">Methamidophos</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Preservative" title="Preservative">Preservatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Benzoic_acid" title="Benzoic acid">Benzoic acid</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethylenediaminetetraacetic_acid" title="Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid">Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sodium_benzoate" title="Sodium benzoate">Sodium benzoate</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sugar_substitute" title="Sugar substitute">Sugar substitutes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acesulfame_potassium" title="Acesulfame potassium">Acesulfame potassium</a></li>

<li><a href="Aspartame" title="Aspartame">Aspartame</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aspartame_controversy" title="Aspartame controversy">controversy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Saccharin" title="Saccharin">Saccharin</a></li>

<li><a href="Sodium_cyclamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium cyclamate">Sodium cyclamate</a></li>

<li><a href="Sorbitol" title="Sorbitol">Sorbitol</a></li>

<li><a href="Sucralose" title="Sucralose">Sucralose</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxins</a>, <a href="Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a>, <a href="Pollution" title="Pollution">environment pollution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Arsenic_contamination_of_groundwater" title="Arsenic contamination of groundwater">Arsenic contamination of groundwater</a></li>

<li><a href="Benzene_in_soft_drinks" title="Benzene in soft drinks">Benzene in soft drinks</a></li>

<li><a href="Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">Bisphenol A</a></li>

<li><a href="Dieldrin" title="Dieldrin">Dieldrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Diethylstilbestrol" title="Diethylstilbestrol">Diethylstilbestrol</a></li>

<li><a href="Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds" title="Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds">Dioxins</a></li>

<li><a href="Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">Mycotoxins</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonylphenol" title="Nonylphenol">Nonylphenol</a></li>

<li><a href="Shellfish_poisoning" title="Shellfish poisoning">Shellfish poisoning</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Food_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Food fraud">Food fraud</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bread_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Bread fraud">Bread</a></li>

<li><a href="Breast_milk_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast milk fraud">Breast milk</a></li>

<li><a href="Olive_oil_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Olive oil fraud">Olive oil</a></li>

<li><a href="Prawn_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Prawn fraud">Prawn</a></li>

<li><a href="Seafood_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafood fraud">Seafood</a></li>

<li><a href="Shrimp_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrimp fraud">Shrimp</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Food_processing" title="Food processing">Food processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="4-Hydroxynonenal" title="4-Hydroxynonenal">4-Hydroxynonenal</a></li>

<li><a href="Acid-hydrolyzed_vegetable_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein">Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein</a></li>

<li><a href="Acrylamide" title="Acrylamide">Acrylamide</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_food_additives" title="List of food additives">Food additives</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Heterocyclic_amine" title="Heterocyclic amine">Heterocyclic amines</a></li>

<li><a href="Modified_starch" title="Modified starch">Modified starch</a></li>

<li><a href="Nitrosamine" title="Nitrosamine">Nitrosamines</a></li>

<li><a href="Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Shortening" title="Shortening">Shortening</a></li>

<li><a href="Trans_fat" title="Trans fat">Trans fat</a></li>

<li><a href="Variant_Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_fluoridation_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_food_contamination_incidents" title="List of food contamination incidents">Food contamination incidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Devon_colic" title="Devon colic">Devon colic</a></li>

<li><a href="Swill_milk_scandal" title="Swill milk scandal">Swill milk scandal</a></li>

<li><a href="Esing_Bakery_incident" title="Esing Bakery incident">Esing Bakery incident</a></li>

<li><a href="1858_Bradford_sweets_poisoning" title="1858 Bradford sweets poisoning">1858 Bradford sweets poisoning</a></li>

<li><a href="1900_English_beer_poisoning" title="1900 English beer poisoning">1900 English beer poisoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Morinaga_Milk_arsenic_poisoning_incident" title="Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident">Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident</a></li>

<li><a href="Minamata_disease" title="Minamata disease">Minamata disease</a></li>

<li>1959 Moroccan oil poisoning disaster</li>

<li><a href="1971_Iraq_poison_grain_disaster" title="1971 Iraq poison grain disaster">1971 Iraq poison grain disaster</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxic_oil_syndrome" title="Toxic oil syndrome">Toxic oil syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="1985_Austrian_diethylene_glycol_wine_scandal" title="1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal">1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Kingdom_BSE_outbreak" title="United Kingdom BSE outbreak">United Kingdom BSE outbreak</a></li>

<li><a href="Australian_meat_substitution_scandal" title="Australian meat substitution scandal">Australian meat substitution scandal</a></li>

<li><a href="1993_Jack_in_the_Box_E._coli_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="1993 Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak">Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak</a></li>

<li><a href="1996_Odwalla_E._coli_outbreak" title="1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak">1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak</a></li>

<li><a href="2006_North_American_E._coli_O157%3AH7_outbreaks" title="2006 North American E. coli O157:H7 outbreaks">2006 North American E. coli outbreaks</a></li>

<li><a href="ICA_meat_repackaging_controversy" title="ICA meat repackaging controversy">ICA meat repackaging controversy</a></li>

<li><a href="2008_Canada_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak">2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak</a></li>

<li><a href="2008_Chinese_milk_scandal" title="2008 Chinese milk scandal">2008 Chinese milk scandal</a></li>

<li><a href="2008_Irish_pork_crisis" title="2008 Irish pork crisis">2008 Irish pork crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="2008_United_States_salmonellosis_outbreak" title="2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak">2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak</a></li>

<li><a href="2011_Germany_E._coli_O104%3AH4_outbreak" title="2011 Germany E. coli O104:H4 outbreak">2011 Germany E. coli outbreak</a></li>

<li><a href="2011_United_States_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2011 United States listeriosis outbreak">2011 United States listeriosis outbreak</a></li>

<li><a href="Bihar_school_meal_poisoning_incident" title="Bihar school meal poisoning incident">Bihar school meal poisoning</a></li>

<li><a href="2013_horse_meat_scandal" title="2013 horse meat scandal">2013 horse meat scandal</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozambique_funeral_beer_poisoning" title="Mozambique funeral beer poisoning">2015 Mozambique funeral beer poisoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Weak_Meat" title="Operation Weak Meat">2017 Brazil Operation Weak Meat</a></li>

<li><a href="2017%E2%80%932018_South_African_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak">2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak</a></li>

<li><a href="2018_Australian_strawberry_contamination" title="2018 Australian strawberry contamination">2018 Australian strawberry contamination</a></li>

<li><a href="2024_United_Kingdom_Shigatoxigenic_E._coli_outbreak" title="2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak">2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak</a></li>

<li><a href="Kobayashi_red_yeast_rice_scandal" title="Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal">Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">Food safety incidents in China</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_safety_incidents_in_Taiwan" title="Food safety incidents in Taiwan">Food safety incidents in Taiwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Foodborne illness</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks">outbreaks</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks_by_death_toll" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks by death toll">death toll</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks_in_the_United_States" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a>, <a href="Standards_organization" title="Standards organization">standards</a>, <a href="List_of_food_safety_organisations" title="List of food safety organisations">watchdogs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acceptable_daily_intake" title="Acceptable daily intake">Acceptable daily intake</a></li>

<li><a href="E_number" title="E number">E number</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_food_labeling_regulations" title="List of food labeling regulations">Food labeling regulations</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_libel_laws" title="Food libel laws">Food libel laws</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_safety_in_Australia" title="Food safety in Australia">Food safety in Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Food_Safety_Network" title="International Food Safety Network">International Food Safety Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Nutrition_facts_label" title="Nutrition facts label">Nutrition facts label</a></li>

<li><a href="Organic_certification" title="Organic certification">Organic certification</a></li>

<li><a href="Quality_Assurance_International" title="Quality Assurance International">Quality Assurance International</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Kingdom_food_information_regulations" class="mw-redirect" title="United Kingdom food information regulations">United Kingdom food information regulations</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_food_safety_organisations" title="List of food safety organisations">Institutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Centre_for_Food_Safety" title="Centre for Food Safety">Centre for Food Safety</a> (Hong Kong)</li>

<li><a href="European_Food_Safety_Authority" title="European Food Safety Authority">European Food Safety Authority</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_Information_and_Control_Agency" title="Food Information and Control Agency">Food Information and Control Agency</a> (Spain)</li>

<li><a href="Food_Standards_Agency" title="Food Standards Agency">Food Standards Agency</a> (United Kingdom)</li>

<li><a href="Institute_for_Food_Safety_and_Health" title="Institute for Food Safety and Health">Institute for Food Safety and Health</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Food_Safety_Network" title="International Food Safety Network">International Food Safety Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Ministry_of_Food_and_Drug_Safety" title="Ministry of Food and Drug Safety">Ministry of Food and Drug Safety</a> (South Korea)</li>

<li><a href="Spanish_Agency_for_Food_Safety_and_Nutrition" title="Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition">Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Curing_(food_preservation)" title="Curing (food preservation)">Curing (food preservation)</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_and_drink_prohibitions" title="Food and drink prohibitions">Food and drink prohibitions</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_marketing" title="Food marketing">Food marketing</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_politics" title="Food politics">Food politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Food preservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_quality" title="Food quality">Food quality</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">Genetically modified food</a></li>

<li><a href="Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">Conspiracy theories</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AFood" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a> <a href="Portal%3ADrink" title="Portal:Drink">Drink portal</a></li>

<li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Food_safety" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Food safety">Commons</a></li>

<li> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Cookbook">Cookbook</a></li>

<li> WikiProject</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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